This article was published in the November 2024 issue of Pet Food Processing. Read it and other articles from this issue in our November digital edition.
Vitamins and minerals play integral roles in the overall health and wellness of pets and help support immune functions, optimal growth and development, metabolic functions, as well as promoting healthy skin and shiny coats. They are vital for chemical reactions in the body that contribute to cognitive development and play a strategic role in healthy weight loss. Vitamins A, D, E and K help maintain healthy eyesight, bone health and immune function. Minerals like potassium and magnesium are important for muscle function and the nervous system.
A considerable amount of research is focused on providing optimal vitamin and mineral levels to pet and companion animals. Pet food nutritionists can use references as initial guidelines to ensure safe levels are correctly supplemented to the formula matrix. The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), via the AAFCO Nutrient Profiles, helps set levels (minimum and maximum) of critical vitamins and minerals for dogs and cats. AAFCO’s guidance helps ensure there are no deficiencies nor toxic levels of ingredients in diets. The National Research Council (NRC) provides guidance for various specialty pets.
“Ingredient suppliers can help pet nutritionists in numerous ways,” said Zack Lowman, Ph.D., PAS, global monogastric technical services manager, Balchem, Montvale, NJ. “First, ensuring their ingredient product is compliant with current AAFCO definitions and intended use. Second, ensuring the ingredient is properly labeled for use in pets. And third, assisting with technical questions and providing guidance during the product development cycle.”
As the pet food category increasingly aligns with human-grade production standards, dsm-firmenich, Delft, the Netherlands, has created its OVN® (Optimum Vitamin Nutrition) guidelines, which go beyond basic regulatory requirements to ensure that products meet the highest standards of quality, consistency and compliance across international markets. The company also offers a variety of human-grade vitamin and mineral premixes for pet foods that address consumer interest in both pet health and environmental sustainability.
Recent work supported by Balchem at the University of Guelph, Ontario, and the Ontario Veterinary College has demonstrated the benefits of increased dietary choline chloride in obese felines to help mobilize fat for energy utilization.
“This is a great example of how an investigator is safely evaluating increased nutrient requirements above the minimum requirements declared in the NRC and/or AAFCO,” shared Eric K. Altom, Ph.D., technical nutritionist, director of innovation for companion animals, Balchem.
Product formulation considerations
When formulating a product’s micronutrients to be within a safe range, considerations include an understanding of the product’s intended use, the pet species, the pet’s life stage, and any dietary restrictions or claims. There are also differences when formulating with natural or synthetic sources and the bioavailability of the varying sources.
The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) helps set levels of critical vitamins and minerals for dogs and cats so pet food processors can formulate safe and nutritious foods for pets.
| Source: ©SATAWAT - STOCK.ADOBE.COMIngredient suppliers that conduct research to better understand their products can help formulators provide safe amounts of vitamins and minerals to animal food and treats. Such research studies could include digestibility, any changes to the gut microbiome balance, or altering the pH that may cause secondary issues, how the product is impacted during the manufacturing process, and shelf-life stability testing, according to Stephanie Clark, Ph.D., board certified companion animal nutritionist and assistant director of special services, BSM Partners, Bentonville, Ark.
Formulators also need robust data on the micronutrients coming from the dietary ingredients and then supplement the necessary micronutrients, explained Tayler Hansen, Ph.D., companion animal nutritionist, Trouw Nutrition, Highland, Ill. Different ingredients have varying vitamin concentrations and bioavailability to the pet.
“Once a proper formula is created, quality assurance checks, like positive release for select nutrients and chemical or foreign contamination, can help ensure that the ingredients are meeting pet food expectations,” said Trevor Faber, Ph.D., companion animal nutritionist, Trouw Nutrition.
At the supplier level, inbound ingredients are tested on a positive release program to ensure potency adequacy. If the ingredient goes into a premix, mixer studies, batch record reviews and positive release criteria on the premix help ensure dosing and proper dispersion at the premixer.
At the manufacturing level, ingredient nutrient levels are monitored, particularly if they could provide a high concentration of a high-risk micronutrient, such iodine and vitamin D3 in marine-derived ingredients. Formulators must also consider the naturally present vitamins and minerals in the ingredients.
Minimizing toxicity risk
When formulating products to minimize vitamin toxicity risks, there are several factors to consider. How much could the vitamin degrade during processing and storage? What is an appropriate formulation overage dosage rate needed to ensure both safety and stability in the final diet through the declared shelf life? What is the solubility of the vitamin?
Symptoms of toxicity vary with the vitamin or mineral ingested. Fat-soluble vitamins carry a much higher toxicity risk compared to some water-soluble vitamins. Beginning stages of vitamin toxicity may include loss of appetite, lethargy and gastrointestinal distress in pets.
Clinical signs include observation and a detailed history of the pet’s diet, supplements and any treats/toppers that the pet may have consumed. Diagnostic tests and potential imaging can help identify if there are abnormal levels present in the blood or urine or being stored in organs and causing damage.
“Vitamin D3 is the most common vitamin overdose encountered in dogs and cats,” said Tina Wismer, DVM, DABVT, DABT, of the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center.
“Vitamin D3 is the most common vitamin overdose encountered in dogs and cats,” said Tina Wismer, DVM, DABVT, DABT, senior director of toxicology, ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center. “Too much vitamin D will cause vomiting, diarrhea, lack of appetite, and elevated calcium levels that lead to kidney failure and mineralization of the soft tissues. Iron is the most common mineral overdose in pets. High doses can cause vomiting, stomach ulcers and liver failure. While not a vitamin, xylitol can be added as a sweetener to chewable vitamins and can cause low blood sugar and liver failure in dogs.”
Shield and protect
In many applications, the active material may be required for pre- or post-processing stability, shelf stability or finished product safety, but in its raw or native form without microencapsulation the material could cause more issues during processing and impact the finished good.
Microencapsulation is used to segregate a raw material from a product or process environment with the goal to prevent raw material degradation, or pre-reaction of problematic materials in a process. Microencapsulation can also be used to coat the nutrient and prevent off-flavor in certain applications where the encapsulate hasn’t been released. With dietary toppers and select supplements, strong palatants are needed to mask the bitterness of the ingredients. The right flavor and aroma combination can cover undesirable off notes and transform a product from “just fuel” to a delicious meal or treat.
“Palatability and sensory perception of a nutrition product is a science unto itself,” Lowman said. “The best nutritional product is of little benefit if the pet will not readily eat the product.”
Degree of bioavailability
Bioavailability is a key driving factor in determining the response of an animal to any nutrient, including vitamins and minerals. Bioavailability consists of two important parts: absorption and utilization, and both must be functional for optimal nutrient efficacy, said Laura Amundson, Ph.D., discovery researcher of physiology and companion animal, Zinpro, Eden Prairie, Minn.
Chelation can be an effective way to increase mineral bioavailability, but not all chelated minerals are the same. Chelator characteristics (chelation strength, ratio of mineral to chelator, complex stability in various pHs) determine its absorption efficiency, risk of interactions with other nutrients and dietary components, and overall effectiveness. Utilization of a reliable, research-proven chelated mineral ensures reliable bioavailability and effectiveness.
Ingredient lists on pet food showcase the essential vitamins and minerals found in the food, all of which contribute to pet health and wellness.
| Source: Wild EarthChelated minerals can provide all the mineral nutritional needs or be used in conjunction with other endogenous mineral sources. Its use can protect minerals from antinutrient factors that can bind minerals and hinder absorption, and can also protect minerals from interacting with other minerals, causing an insoluble form that cannot be absorbed. Chelation can also help reduce toxicity as it allows the body to improve absorption without absorbing excessive amounts of the mineral.
The most common minerals offered as chelates are the transition elements from the periodic table, namely zinc, copper, iron and manganese. Magnesium and calcium can also be chelated. Sodium and potassium cannot be chelated, and selenium is not in a chelated form.
Minerals with low bioavailability have to be used at higher levels to ensure a pet is able to absorb the appropriate level of the mineral. Water-soluble nutrients like Vitamin C tend to display higher bioavailability and are absorbed more efficiently, meaning only a small amount is needed to deliver essential health benefits. Conversely, fat-soluble nutrients with lower bioavailability may need to be provided in higher concentrations, increasing the risk of excess or inefficacy.
“If a nutrient form is selected that is less bioavailable, more may need to be consumed to meet the daily requirements,” Clark said. “This may also increase dietary needs, and the nutrients may need to be supplemented in the diet, or the diet consumed may need to be adjusted. It can affect tolerance by the animal being less likely to develop toxicity as not as well absorbed, but it can also increase the risk of deficiency.”
Vitamin and mineral deficiencies and/or toxicities cannot be considered in isolation, but rather need to be evaluated as a collective to best understand how each will be metabolized by the animal. Following AAFCO nutrient profiles for dogs and cats for each of the critical vitamins and minerals can help ensure safe levels are supplemented to pet diets. Regularly testing the finished product to document the formula, manufacturing process and packaging can help deliver the desired nutrient levels.
“The best way to ensure safe and effective nutrition for pet health and longevity is communication among all key stakeholders within the pet industry, including nutritionists, veterinarians, ingredient companies and processors,” Amundson concluded. “Research to advance our understanding of the role of vitamins and minerals as part of complete diets in dog and cat physiology is necessary to fill the knowledge gaps in pet nutrition.”
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